HomePsychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journalvol. 3 no. 7 (2022)

Smoking Cessation in Catholic Schools: A Phenomenological Study

Meraly Degillo

Discipline: Education

 

Abstract:

This qualitative – phenomenological research explored and analyzed the lived experience of smoking cessation among Catholic schools’ stakeholders. Using the Transtheoretical model of change and phenomenology, the experience of smoking cessation by the participants were found to have the following textural themes: kin and peer influence as an entry point for smoking; perceived negative effects as possible for health consequences of smoking; possible positive effects and experiences of smoking cessation; replacement strategies as ways done for smoking cessation; commitment to self as a drive for smoking cessation actions; maintaining regularly trained smoking cessation behaviors and intentions; self-efficacy as key to the termination of smoking behavior; and becoming better than before as the meaning of smoking cessation. The essence of smoking cessation can be metaphorically likened to the experience of leaving the smoke behind. The findings of the study imply that Catholic schools can serve as an agent of change and a facilitator of transformation for smokers who intends smoking cessation, and the awareness and protection of stakeholders from the dangers of smoking. Hence, this study recommends the use of Living the Smoke Behind Program as proposed intervention to be facilitated by the respective guidance offices of Catholic schools.



References:

  1. Acuff, L., Fristoe, K., Hamblen, J., Smith, M., & Chen, J. (2016). Third-hand smoke: Old smoke, new concerns. Journal of Community Health, 41(3), 680-687. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-015-0114-1
  2. Almutairi, K. M. (2014). Smoking among Saudi students: A review of risk factors and early intentions of smoking. Journal of Community Health, 39(5), 901-7. doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10900-014-9909-8
  3. Alqurashi, E. (2016). Self-efficacy in online learning environments: A literature review. Contemporary Issues in Education Research (Online), 9(1), 45. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1757523543?accountid=34542
  4. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Association. 
  5. Bajoga, U., Lewis, S., McNeill, A., & Szatkowski, L. (2011). Does the introduction of comprehensive smoke-free legislation lead to a decrease in population smoking prevalence? Addiction, 106(7), 1346-1354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03446.x
  6. Bakker, E. C., Nijkamp, M. D., Sloot, C., Berndt, N. C., & Bolman, C. A. W. (2015). Intention to abstain from smoking among cardiac rehabilitation patients: The role of attitude, self-efficacy, and craving. The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 30(2), 172. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1661670386?accountid=34542
  7. Baraceros, E.L. (2016). Practical Research 1 (1 st Ed). Manila: Rex Book Store.
  8. Bernardo, A. B. I., & Estrellado, A. F. (2017). Subjective well-being of Filipino women who experienced intimate partner violence: A person-centered analysis. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 39(4), 360-376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10447-017-9303-1
  9. Byeon, H., Lee, D., & Cho, S. (2016). Association between second-hand smoking and laryngopathy in the general population of South Korea. PLoS One, 11(11) http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165337
  10. Calderwood, K. A. (2011). Adapting the Transtheoretical model of change to the bereavement process. Social Work, 56(2), 107-18. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1794166731?accountid=34542
  11. Cameron, A., Reed, K. P., & Ninnemann, A. (2013). Reactivity to negative affect in smokers: The role of implicit associations and distress tolerance in smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors, 38(12), 2905. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1445013141?accountid=34542
  12. Campbell, S., Bohanna, I., Swinbourne, A., Cadet-James, Y., McKeown, D., & McDermott, R. (2013). Stages of change, smoking behaviour and readiness to quit in a large sample of indigenous Australians living in eight remote north Queensland communities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(4), 1562-71. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1355951036?accountid=34542
  13. Caponnetto, P., Keller, E., Bruno, C. M., & Polosa, R. (2013). Handling relapse in smoking cessation: Strategies and recommendations. Internal and Emergency Medicine, 8(1), 7-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11739-012-0864-z
  14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). Public Health Strategic Framework for COPD Prevention. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on 4 September 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/copd/pdfs/Framework_for_COPD_Prevention.pdf
  15. Chacko, R. V. (2015). The influence of purpose in work-life, job engagement, and meaningfulness on cognitive, affective, and behavioral well-being: A regulatory focus theory approach (10111523). Available from ABI/INFORM Global. (1794166731). Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1794166731?accountid=34542
  16. Chang, R. C., Ho, Y., Wong, S., Gentleman, S. M., & Ng, H. (2014). Neuropathology of cigarette smoking. Acta Neuropathologica, 127(1), 53-69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00401-013-1210-x
  17. Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 59(4), 487-510. doi: http://Search.Proquest.Com/Docview/1095537787
  18. Converse, M. (2012). Philosophy of phenomenology: How understanding AIDS research. Nurse Researcher (Through 2013), 20(1), 28-32. Retrieved from http://Search.Proquest.Com/Docview/1095537787?Accountid=33508Creswell, J.W. and Miller, D.L. (2000) Determining Validity in Qualitative Inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39, 124-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2
  19. Coriden, J. A., Green, T. J., Heintschel, D. E., Canon Law Society of America. & Catholic Church. (1985). The Code of Canon Law: A text and commentary. New York: Paulist Press.
  20. Creswell, J. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4 th Ed). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
  21. Creswell, J. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4 th Edition). California: SAGE
  22. Degillo, J.L.L. (2017). Substance Use among Self-confessed Substance Users: A Phenomenological Study. Master’s Thesis, Bacolod City, University of St. La Salle—Bacolod.
  23. Department of Health (2016). National Tobacco Control Strategies 2011-2016. Retrieved from http://www.wpro.who.int/philippines/publications/ntcs_final_revision01_6-20-12.pdf
  24. Dowling, M. & Cooney, A. (2012). Research approaches related to phenomenology: Negotiating a complex landscape. Nurse Researcher (through 2013), 20(2), 21-7. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1325690439?accountid=33508
  25. Drobes, D. J., Macqueen, D. A., Blank, M. D., Saladin, M. E., & Malcolm, R. J. (2013). Effects of intravenous nicotine on pre-pulse inhibition in smokers and non-smokers: Relationship with familial smoking. Psychopharmacology, 229(2), 285-94. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3107-8
  26. Duaso, M. J., Bakhshi, S., Mujika, A., Purssell, E., & While, A. E. (2017). Nurses' smoking habits and their professional smoking cessation practices. A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 67, 3-11. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2016.10.011
  27. El-Amin, S., Kinnunen, J. M., Ollila, H., Helminen, M., Alves, J., Lindfors, P., & Rimpelä, A.,H. (2016). Transmission of smoking across three generations in Finland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(1), 1-15. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13010074
  28. Englander, M. (2012). The interview: Data collection in descriptive phenomenological human scientific research. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 43, 13 – 35. doi: 10.1163/156916212×632943
  29. Executive Order Number 26 (EO26). (2017). Providing for the Establishment of a Smoke-free Environments in Public and Enclosed Places. Retrieved from http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2017/05may/20170516-EO-26-RRD.pdf
  30. Fetterman, J. L., Pompilius, M., Westbrook, D. G., Uyeminami, D., Brown, J., Pinkerton, K. E., & Ballinger, S. W. (2013). Developmental exposure to second-hand smoke increases adult atherogenesis and alters mitochondrial DNA copy number and deletions in apoE/ mice. PLoS One, 8(6) http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0066835
  31. Field, M. (2013). Development of the hidden substance abuse in the workplace comprehension scale (HSAWC) (Order No. 3567911).Available from ABI/INFORM Global. (1424274076). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1424274076?accountid=33508
  32. Franciosi, L., Postma, D. S., Berge, M. v., Govorukhina, N., Horvatovich, P. L., Fusetti, F., …, Hacken, H. T. (2014). Susceptibility to COPD: Differential proteomic profiling after acute smoking. PLoS One, 9(7) doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102037
  33. Galace, J. (2017). Transformation through Justice and Peace Education: Discussion Forum during the 2017 CEAP National Convention. Retrieved from http://www.ceap.org.ph/resources.aspx
  34. Gao, Y., Li, L., Chan, E. Y. Y., Lau, J., & Griffiths, S. M. (2013). Parental migration, self-efficacy and cigarette smoking among rural adolescents in south china. PLoS One, 8(3) http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057569
  35. Gardwood, P. and Lindmeier, C. (2017). World No Tobacco Day 2017: Beating tobacco for health, prosperity, the environment and national development. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/no-tobacco-day/en/
  36. Global Adult Tobacco Survey (2017). Fact Sheet, Philippines 2015, date released 13 March 2017. Retrieved from https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/kmcd/GATS-PHL2016Standalone%20Factsheet_13Mar2017.pdf
  37. Grigalinait, V., & Pilelien, L. (2017). Attitude toward smoking: The effect of negative smoking-related pictures. Oeconomia Copernicana, 8(2), 317-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.24136/oc.v8i2.20
  38. Gunderson, J., & Barrett, A. E. (2017). Emotional cost of emotional support? The association between intensive mothering and psychological well-being in midlife. Journal of Family Issues, 38(7), 992-1009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513X15579502
  39. Gustafson, A. B., & McCarville, M. (2015). Catholic social thought in catholic business schools in the U.S. today: A survey and conclusions. Journal of Religion and Business Ethics, 4(1) Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1923677917?accountid=34542
  40. Health Consequences of Smoking.” Word Health Organization (2018). Retrieved from http://www.who.int/tobacco/framework/wha_eb/wha23_32/en/
  41. Hedström, A. K., Hillert, J., Olsson, T., & Alfredsson, L. (2013). Smoking and multiple sclerosis susceptibility. European Journal of Epidemiology, 28(11), 867-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10654-013-9853-4
  42. Hendricks, P. S., & Leventhal, A. M. (2013). Abstinence-related expectancies predict smoking withdrawal effects: Implications for possible causal mechanisms. Psychopharmacology, 230(3), 363-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3169-7
  43. Hiemstra, M., Otten, R., Engels, R. C., M., & E. (2012). Smoking onset and the time-varying effects of self-efficacy, environmental smoking, and smoking-specific parenting by using discrete-time survival analysis. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35(2), 240-51. https://doi.org/10.52006/main.v1i1.3
  44. Hortillas, M. L. M., & Gayoles, L. A. (2018). The Metamorphosis of People Living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Philippine Social Science Journal, 1(1), 9-20. https://doi.org/10.52006/main.v1i1.3
  45. Husserl, E. (1927). Phenomenology, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Translated By Richard E. Palmer. Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology 2 (1971): 77-90; In Husserl’s Shorter Works, pp. 21-35
  46. Husserl, E. (1964).The idea of phenomenology, translated by William Alston and George Nakhnikian
  47. Inandi, T. et al (2013). Global health professions student survey− turkey: second-hand smoke exposure and opinions of medical students on anti-tobacco law. Cent Eur J Public Health 2013; 21 (3): 134–139. Retrieved from http://www1.szu.cz/svi/cejph/archiv/2013-3-03-full.pdf
  48. Iversen, B., Jacobsen, B. K., & Løchen, M. (2013). Active and passive smoking and the risk of myocardial infarction in 24,968 men and women during 11 year of follow-up: The tromsø study. European Journal of Epidemiology, 28(8), 659-67. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10654-013-9785-z
  49. Jae, J. Y., Song, M., Hyung-Suk Yoon, Lee, H., Lee, Y., Sang-Ah, L., Choi, J., Jong-koo, L., & Kang, D. (2015). What are the major determinants in the success of smoking cessation: Results from the health examinees study? PLoS One, 10(12) http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143303
  50. Joshi, G. V. (2014). A new cigarette hazard - third-hand smoke. Alive, 42-43. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1627755126?accountid=34542
  51. Kanazawa, H., Kyoh, S., Tochino, Y., Asai, K., & Hirata, K. (2014). Potential role of pentosidine on susceptibility to small airway closure in elderly and smoking asthma. Respiratory Medicine, 108(5), 709-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2014.02.001
  52. Kauffman, B. Y., Farris, S. G., Alfano, C. A., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2017). Emotion dysregulation explains the relation between insomnia symptoms and negative reinforcement smoking cognitions among daily smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 72, 33. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1919935459?accountid=34542
  53. Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners (3rd Ed). Great Britain: TJ International Ltd & SAGE Publication Inc. Retrieved from http://www.sociology.kpi.ua/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Ranjit_Kumar-Research_Methodology_A_Step-by-Step_G.pdf
  54. Latham, J. R. (2013). A framework for leading the transformation to performance excellence part I: CEO perspectives on forces, facilitators, and strategic leadership systems. Quality Management Journal, 20(2), 22. Retrieved from http://johnlatham.me/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2013_QMJ_P1.pdf
  55. Lawrence, D., Hafekost, J., Hull, P., Mitrou, F., & Zubrick, S. R. (2013). Smoking, mental illness and socioeconomic disadvantage: Analysis of the Australian national survey of mental health and wellbeing. BMC Public Health, 13, 462. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-462
  56. Lichtman, M. (2011). Understanding and Evaluating Qualitative Educational Research. California:SAGE
  57. Lichtman, M. (2014). Qualitative Research in Education: A User’s Guide. California: SAGE
  58. Luijten, M., Kleinjan, M., Franken, I. H., & A. (2016). Event-related potentials reflecting smoking cue reactivity and cognitive control as predictors of smoking relapse and resumption. Psychopharmacology, 233(15-16), 2857-2868. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-016-4332-8
  59. Manen, M.V. (2015). Researching Lived Experiences: Human Science for an Action Sensitive Pedagogy (2 nd Ed). New York: Routledge. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.ph/bookshl=en&lr=&id=1LZmDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=define+lived+experience
    &ots=qVbG2Ubof1&sig=7qEetjBXLOQgcvMDFU2FXg3ThnI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=define%20lived%20experience&f=false
  60. Mansour, A. (2017). Determinants of willingness to accept secondhand smoke exposure. Am J Health Behavior. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.41.5.6
  61. Manwong, R. K. (2013). International Materials in Drug Education and Vice Control (3 rd Ed.). Quezon City: Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
  62. Martinez, E., Tatum, K. L., Glass, M., Bernath, A., Ferris, D., Reynolds, P., & Schnoll, R. A. (2010). Correlates of smoking cessation self-efficacy in a community sample of smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 35(2), 175. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/218944621?accountid=34542
  63. McNeill, A., Guignard, R., Beck, F., Marteau, R., & Marteau, T. M. (2015). Understanding increases in smoking prevalence: Case study from France in comparison with England 2000-10. Addiction, 110(3),392-400. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/add.12789
  64. Mee, S. (2014). Self-efficacy: A mediator of smoking behavior and depression among college students. Pediatric Nursing, 40(1), 9-15, 37. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1508688470?accountid=34542
  65. Miller, W.R. and Rose, G.S. (2013). Motivational Interviewing and Decisional Balance: Contrasting Responses to Client Ambivalence. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 2015, 43, 129–141. First published online 11 November 2013 doi: 10.1017/S1352465813000878. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/34a6/2e9597f976817864a16e8de303c4e2dfb3a9.pdf
  66. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. California: SAGE
  67. Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (7 th Edition). Retrieved from https://cleavermonkey.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/w-lawrence-neuman-social-research-methods_-qualitative-and-quantitative-approaches-pearson-education-limited-2013.pdf
  68. New South Wales Department of Health (NSWDH). (2010). Public Health Classifications Project –Determinants of Health Phase Two: Final Report. ISBN 978-1-74187-461-7
  69. Nollen, N. L., Mayo, M. S., Ahluwalia, J. S., Tyndale, R. F., Benowitz, N. L., Faseru, B., . . . Cox, L. S. (2013). Factors associated with discontinuation of bupropion and counseling among African American light smokers in a randomized clinical trial. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 46(3), 336-48. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-013- 9510-x
  70. Paler-Calmorin, L. & Calmorin, M. (2008).Research methods and thesis writing, 2 nd Edition. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
  71. Pinar, P. B., Canan, K. D., Elbek, O., & Akcay, S. (2015). Association between pulmonologists tobacco use and their effort in promoting smoking cessation in turkey: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pulmonary Medicine, 15 Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1781587183?accountid=34542
  72. Piñeiro, B., López-Durán, A., Martínez-Vispo, C., del Río, E. F., Martínez, Ú., Rodríguez-Cano, R., . .. Becoña, E. (2017). Smoking relapse situations among a community-recruited sample of Spanish daily smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 75, 152. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1957217273?accountid=34542
  73. Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C., and Carey, T.G. (2017). Practical Research for Senior High School. Quezon City: LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
  74. Prochaska, J.O. and Velicer, W.F. (1997). The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change. AmJ Health Promot 1997; 12 (1):38-48. Copyright ©1997 by American Journal of Health Promotion Inc.0890-1171/97/$5.0+0 0. Retrieved from https://www.colleaga.org/sites/default/files/attachments/915aa556ec4ff962efe2a99295dd2e8bda89_0.pdf
  75. Prochaska, J.O., Norcross, J.C. and DiClemente, C.C. (2013). Applying the stages of change. Psychotherapy in Australia, Vol. 19 No 2, February 2013. Retrieved from http://www.psychotherapy.com.au/fileadmin/site_files/events/pdfs/APPLYING_THE_STAGES_OF_CHANGE_JOHN_NORCROSS.pdf
  76. Prochaska, J.O., Velicer, W.F., Rossi, J.S., Goldstein, M.G., Marcus, B.H., Rakowski, W., Fiore, C., Harlow, L.L., Redding, C.A., Rosenbloom, D., and Rossi, S.R. (1994). Stages of Change and Decisional Balance for 12 Problem Behaviors. Health Psychology 1994, Vol. 13, No. 1,39-46. American Psychological Association, Inc., and the Division of Health Psychology. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.8610&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  77. Quitting Smoking.” World Health Organization (2017). Retrieved December 2017, from http://www.who.int/tobacco/quitting/en/
  78. Ramezanzade, H., & Arabnarmi, B. (2017). Evaluation of the relationship between causality orientation and decisional balance at different stages of exercise behavior change. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 17, 458-465. http://dx.doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2017.s2069
  79. Ravensberg, A. J., Slats, A. M., van Wetering, S., Janssen, K., van Wijngaarden, S., de Jeu, R., . . .Hiemstra, P. S. (2013). CD8+ T cells characterize early smoking-related airway pathology in patients with asthma. Respiratory Medicine, 107(7), 959-66. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2013.03.018
  80. Reiners, G.M. (2012). Understanding the Differences between Husserl’s (Descriptive) and Heidegger’s (Interpretive) Phenomenological Research. J Nurse Care 1:119. doi:10.4172/2167-1168.1000119
  81. Roberts, B., PhD., Gilmore, A., PhD., Stickley, A., PhD., Rotman, D., PhD., Prohoda, V., PhD., Haerpfer, C., PhD., & McKee, M., M.D. (2012). Changes in smoking prevalence in 8 countries of the former soviet union between 2001 and 2010. American Journal of Public Health, 102(7), 1320-8. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1039585355?accountid=34542
  82. Roche, D. J., O., Bujarski, S., Moallem, N. R., Guzman, I., Shapiro, J. R., & Ray, L. A. (2014). Predictors of smoking lapse in a human laboratory paradigm. Psychopharmacology, 231(14), 2889-97. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3465-x
  83. Rostila, M., Almquist, Y. B., Östberg, V., Edling, C., & Rydgren, J. (2013). Social network characteristics and daily smoking among young adults in sweden. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(12), 6517-33. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1494552995?accountid=34542
  84. Ryff, C. D. (2013). Psychological Well-Being Revisited: Advances in the Science and Practice of Eudaimonia. Psychother Psychosom 2014;83:10-28.https://doi.org/10.1159/000353263
  85. Savage, M. (2014). Smoking outside: The effect of the Irish workplace smoking ban on smoking prevalence among the employed. Health Economics, Policy and Law, 9(4), 407-24. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1744133114000036
  86. Schlam, T. R., Piper, M. E., Cook, J. W., Fiore, M. C., & Baker, T. B. (2012). Life 1 year after a quit attempt: Real-time reports of quitters and continuing smokers. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44(3), 309-19. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12160-012-9399-9
  87. Schuck, K., Otten, R., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Kleinjan, M. (2012). The role of environmental smoking in smoking related cognitions and susceptibility to smoking in never-smoking 9-12 year-old children. Addictive Behaviors, 37(12), 1400. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1038814773?accountid=34542
  88. Shang, C. (2015). The effect of smoke-free air law in bars on smoking initiation and relapse among teenagers and young adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(1), 504-520. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1646385896?accountid=34542
  89. Siemiatycki, J., Karp, I., Sylvestre, M., & Pintos, J. (2014). Estimating the proportion of cases of lung cancer legally attributable to smoking: A novel approach for class actions against the tobacco industry. American Journal of Public Health, 104(8), e60-6. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1549549132?accountid=34542
  90. Slezakova, K., Castro, D., Delerue-matos, C., Morais, S., & Pereira, M. D. C. (2014). Levels and risks of particulate bound PAHs in indoor air influenced by tobacco smoke: A field measurement. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 21(6), 4492-501. doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2391-5
  91. “Smoking cessation.” Oxford Living Dictionary (2017). Retrieved on December 2017, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cessation
  92. “Smoking.” Oxford Living Dictionary (2017). Retrieved on December 2017, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/smoking
  93. Smoking; studies from university of Nebraska in the area of smoking described (associations between behavioural risk factors and smoking, heavy smoking and future smoking among an Australian population-based sample). (2016, Apr 16). Obesity, Fitness & Wellness Week Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1779219638?accountid=34542
  94. Tackett, J. L., Herzhoff, K., Harden, K. P., Page, E., and Josephs, R. A. (2014). Personality Hormone Interactions in Adolescent Externalizing Psychopathology. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment © 2014 American Psychological Association 2014, Vol. 5, No. 3, 235–246. Retrieved on 5 September 2017, from https://labs.la.utexas.edu/harden/files/2013/05/Tackett-2014-Test-x-Cort.pdf
  95. Takagi, D., Kondo, N., Takada, M., & Hashimoto, H. (2014). Differences in spousal influence on smoking cessation by gender and education among Japanese couples. BMC Public Health, 14, 1184. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-1184
  96. Tembo, A.C. (2016). Phenomenological Inquiry as a Methodology for Investigating the Lived Experience of Being Critically Ill in Intensive Care. Journal of Intensive and Critical Care, Vol. 2 No. 1: 8. DOI: 10.21767/2471-8505.100017
  97. Thomas, K. E. H., Kisely, S., & Urrego, F. (2017). Increasing pediatricians' smoking cessation promotion and knowledge of the smoking cessation trust. Clinical Pediatrics, 56(5), 461-466. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0009922816660542
  98. Thrul, J., Lipperman-Kreda, S., Grube, J. W., & Friend, K. B. (2014). Community-level adult daily smoking prevalence moderates the association between adolescents' cigarette smoking and perceived smoking by friends. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(9), 1527-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0058-7
  99. Titova, O. E., Ayvazova, E. A., Bichkaeva, F. A., Brooks, S. J., Chumakova, G. N., Schiöth, H.,B., & Benedict, C. (2012). The influence of active and passive smoking during pregnancy on umbilical cord blood levels of vitamins A and E and neonatal anthropometric indices. The British Journal of Nutrition, 108(8), 1341-5. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S000711451100688X
  100. Tjora, T., Hetland, J., Aaro, L. E., & Overland, S. (2011). Distal and proximal family predictors of adolescents' smoking initiation and development: A longitudinal latent curve model analysis. BMC Public Health, 11, 911. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-911
  101. “Tobacco.” World Health Organization (WHO). (2017). Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/
  102. Tuohy, D., Cooney, A., Dowling, M., Murphy, K., & Sixsmith, J., (2013). An overview of interpretive phenomenology as a research methodology. Nurse Researcher (through 2013), 20(6), 17-20. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1406196683?accountid=33508
  103. Velicer, W. F, Prochaska, J. O., Fava, J. L., Norman, G. J., & Redding, C. A. (1998). Smoking cessation and stress management: Applications of the Transtheoretical Model of behavior change. Homeostasis, 38, 216-233. Retrieved from http://www.lungenordination.at/TTM.pdf
  104. Walliman, N. (2011). Research Methods: The Basics. New York: Routledge. Retrieved from https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/2317618/mod_resource/content/1/BLOCO%202_Research%20Methods%20The%20Basics.pdf
  105. Wesnes, K. A., Edgar, C. J., Kezic, I., Salih, H. M., & de Boer, P. (2013). Effects of nicotine withdrawal on cognition in a clinical trial setting. Psychopharmacology, 229(1), 133-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3089-6
  106. Willmott, M., Langford, R., & Fletcher, A. (2016). Student and staff beliefs about smoking in further education settings: Qualitative findings from a process evaluation. The Lancet, 388 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32347-9
  107. World Health Organization (2018). Tobacco Use Data WHO Region. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.1805REG?lang=en
  108. World Health Organization (WHO). (1946). Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf
  109. World Health Organization (WHO). (2015). Global adult tobacco survey. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/survey/gats/philippines/en/
  110. World Health Organization (WHO). (2015). WHO global report on trends in prevalence of tobacco smoking 2015. Retrieved from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/156262/1/9789241564922_eng.pdf?ua=1
  111. Xiang, Z., Shen, T., Kang, Q., Zhang, B., & Zhu, L. (2017). Longitudinal effects of examination stress on psychological well-being and a possible mediating role of self-esteem in Chinese high school students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9948-9
  112. Yang, T., Yu, L., Bottorff, J.L., Wu, D., Jiang, J., Peng, S., and Young, K.J. (2015) Global Health Professions Student Survey (GHPSS) in Tobacco Control in China. Am J Health Behav. 2015;39(5):732-741 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.39.5.14
  113. Zhang, X. Y., Chen, D. C., Tan, Y. L., Xiu, M. H., Cui, J., Hui, L. . . . Kosten, T. R. (2014). Socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of heavy and non-heavy smokers among schizophrenia inpatients in a Chinese Han population. Psychopharmacology, 231(1), 305-14. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3239-x
  114. Zohrabi, M. (2013). Mixed Method Research: Instruments, Validity, Reliability and Reporting Findings. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 254-262, February 2013 © 2013. Finland: Academy Publisher. doi:10.4304/tpls.3.2.254-262