Home⇛Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives⇛vol. 2 no. 6 (2024)

A Mother’s Woes: Implications of Gender-based Oppression on Single Motherhood

Cassandra S Munsayac | Allysa Joyce A Zulueta | Ida Yeska I Garcia | Jdam Ross DR Bardelosa | John Ruselle D Mateo | Joseph A Villarama

Discipline: social sciences (non-specific)

 

Abstract:

The gender-based oppression single mothers face, affecting their psychosocial well-being, is often overlooked, especially in the Philippines. This study investigates gender-based oppression, such as misogyny and sexism in workplaces and the personal lives of single mothers, and how these correlate and affect their motherhood. Three single mothers, selected through purposive sampling, were interviewed using semi-structured and open-ended questions. This study applied the feminist theory of Mary Wollstonecraft to understand the struggles of women based on gender extensively. The interviews were transcribed, and the data were coded and analyzed thematically, generating four recurring themes. Results revealed that misogyny and sexism are both rooted in patriarchy, exposing single mothers to the internalization of gender-based oppression, affecting how they view themselves. Prevailing stereotypes and gender roles ingrained into the sociocultural framework of the Philippines increased society's expectations toward single mothers because of gender. Results showed that despite challenges, the rise of feminist and women's rights groups and movements increased recognition of women in the workforce, as single mothers expressed the lack of discrimination in their workplaces. The difficulties single mothers experienced only emboldened them and promoted women's empowerment among themselves and others. Overall, the study found that single mothers are still struggling due to gender-based oppression, highlighting the need for greater support for single mothers. Misogyny and sexism exist due to patriarchy, establishing harmful roles for women. Thus, this study significantly contributes to discussions of gender discrimination and how to foster safe places for all genders, specifically single mothers in the Philippines.



References:

  1. Ali, S. K., & Soomar, S. M. (2019). Single parenting: Understanding reasons and consequences. JOJ Nursing and Health care, 10(2), 001-003. http://dx.doi.org/10.19080/JOJNHC.2019.10.555781
  2. American Psychological Association. (2019). Single parenting and today’s family. Https://Www.apa.org. https://www.apa.org/topics/parenting/single-parent
  3. Bahk, E. (2019, July 23). Single-parent families suffer financial difficulties. Koreatimes; The Korea Times. https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2023/02/113_272753.html
  4. Bain, M. C. (2020). Exploring the challenges of single mothers in the Philippines: Empowerment as a diaconal task of the Evangelical church in the Philippines. Unit.no. https://doi.org/https://hdl.handle.net/11250/2825396
  5. Barker, K., & Jurasz, O. (2019). Online misogyny. Journal of International Affairs, 72(2), 95-114. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26760834
  6. Barnes, S., & Adams, M. L. (2022). A large and troubling iceberg: sexism and misogyny in women’s work as sport coaches. Sports Coaching Review, 11(2), 127-146. https://doi.org/10.1080/21640629.2021.1975940
  7. Barni, D., Fiorilli, C., Romano, L., Zagrean, I., Alfieri, S., & Russo, C. (2022). Gender Prejudice Within the Family: The Relation Between Parents’ Sexism and Their Socialization Values. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.846016
  8. Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2020). The gender pay gap: Have women gone as far as they can?. In Inequality in the United States: A Reader (pp. 345-362). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003071709-31/gender-pay-gap-women-gone-far-francine-blau-lawrence-kahn
  9. Blondé, J., Gianettoni, L., Gross, D. et al. (2022) Hegemonic masculinity, sexism, homophobia, and perceived discrimination in traditionally male-dominated fields of study: A study in Swiss vocational upper-secondary schools. Int J Educ Vocat Guidance. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-022-09559-7
  10. Bowie, L. (2019). Single mothers' narratives of strength, with a focus on resiliency and resourcefulness (Doctoral dissertation, City University of Seattle). http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11803/793
  11. Buchhave, H., & Belgith, N. B. H. (2022). Overcoming barriers to women’s work in the Philippines. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/overcoming-barriers-womens-work-philippines
  12. Callaghan, M. A., Watchiba, D., Purkey, E., Davison, C. M., Aldersey, H. M., & Bartels, S. A. (2021). “I Don’t Know Where I Have to Knock for Support”: A Mixed-Methods Study on Perceptions and Experiences of Single Mothers Raising Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(19), 10399.
  13. Cassidy, B. S., & Krendl, A. C. (2019). A crisis of competence: Benevolent sexism affects evaluations of women’s competence. Sex Roles, 81(7-8), 505-520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-1011-3
  14. Cherry, M. A., & Wilcox, M. M. (2021). Sexist microaggressions: Traumatic stressors mediated by self-compassion. The Counseling Psychologist, 49(1), 106-137. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0011000020954534
  15. Collins, C. (2019). Making motherhood work. In Making Motherhood Work. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691185156
  16. Cox, R., & Jewitt, C. (2022). Surviving in scrubs: sexism, sexual harassment, and assault in the primary care workforce. British Journal of General Practice, 72(723), 466-467.
  17. Crossman, Ashley. (2021). Feminist Theory in Sociology. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/feminist-theory-3026624
  18. Diaz-Serrano, L., & Flamand, S. (2020). Schools' Attitudes Towards Single Parents: Experimental Evidence. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3695400
  19. Dutta, S. (2019). The Challenges Faced By Women In The Workplace. Nurture an Engaged and Satisfied Workforce | Vantage Circle HR Blog; Nurture an Engaged and Satisfied Workforce | Vantage Circle HR Blog. https://blog.vantagecircle.com/women-in-the-workplace/
  20. Feigt, N. (2018). The Relationship of Gender-Based Microaggressions and The Relationship of Gender-Based Microaggressions and Internalized Sexism on Mental Health Outcomes: A Mother- Internalized Sexism on Mental Health Outcomes: A Mother- Daughter Study Daughter Study. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8419&context=etd
  21. Forbes, L. K. (2020). Differences in Intensive Parenting Attitudes and Gender Norms Among U.S. Mothers - Lisa K. Forbes, Courtney Donovan, Margaret R. Lamar, 2020. The Family Journal. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1066480719893964
  22. Garcia, S. R., Daez Lim, W. C., Pascua, P. K., & Santiago, M. P. (2021). Inang Tatay: The Journey of Single Moms Amidst COVID 19 Pandemic. ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349089036_Inang_Tatay_The_Journey_of_Single_Moms_Amidst_COVID_19_Pandemic
  23. Gaunt, R., & Pinho, M. (2018). Do sexist mothers change more diapers? Ambivalent sexism, maternal gatekeeping, and the division of childcare. Sex Roles, 79(3-4), 176-189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0864-6
  24. Gita-Carlos, R. A. (2022). Inequality, stigma push Filipinas to keep soaring. Pnagovph; Philippine News Agency. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1169528
  25. Glick, P., & Raberg, L. (2018). Benevolent sexism and the status of women. In C. B. Travis, J. W. White, A. Rutherford, W. S. Williams, S. L. Cook, & K. F. Wyche (Eds.), APA handbook of the psychology of women: History, theory, and battlegrounds (pp. 363–380). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000059-018
  26. Golombok, S., Zadeh, S., Freeman, T., Lysons, J., & Foley, S. (2020). Single mothers by choice: Parenting and child adjustment in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 35(2).  https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000797
  27. González Granados, P., Valero Errazu, D., & Sierra Berdejo, M. J. (2022). ‘For me, it was a liberation, like being free again.’A qualitative approach to the care trajectories of divorced mothers in Spain. Families, Relationships and Societies, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1332/204674321X16648932926816
  28. Grosz, E. (2020). Sexual subversions. Routledge.
  29. Guy-Evans, O. (2023). Patriarchal Society According to Feminism. Simply Sociology. https://simplysociology.com/patriarchal-society-feminism-definition.html
  30. Hammond, M. D., Milojev, P., Huang, Y., & Sibley, C. G. (2018). Benevolent sexism and hostile sexism across the ages. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(7), 863-874. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617727588
  31. Harkness, S., Gregg, P., & Fernández‐Salgado, M. (2020). The Rise in Single‐Mother Families and Children’s Cognitive Development: Evidence From Three British Birth Cohorts. Child Development, 91(5), 1762-1785. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13342
  32. Hyland, M., Djankov, S., & Goldberg, P. K. (2020). Gendered laws and women in the workforce. American Economic Review: Insights, 2(4), 475-490.
  33. Khan, M. M., Jakaria, M. S. M., Jhuma, C. F., & Miah, Md. S. (2022). Challenges of Single Motherhood in Socio-Cultural Context: A Qualitative Study in Rural areas of Bangladesh. Space and Culture, India, 10(2), 52–65. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v10i2.1282
  34. Kim, G. E., & Kim, E. J. (2020). Factors affecting the quality of life of single mothers compared to married mothers. BMC Psychiatry, 20, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02586-0
  35. Kohl, H. (2021, September 17). Struggles of Single Motherhood - Acenda. Acenda. https://acendahealth.org/blog/struggles-of-single-motherhood/
  36. Leaper, C., & Brown, C. S. (2018). Sexism in childhood and adolescence: Recent trends and advances in research. Child development perspectives, 12(1), 10-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12247
  37. Leopold, T. (2018). Gender Differences in the Consequences of Divorce: A Study of Multiple Outcomes. Demography, 55(3), 769–797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0667-6
  38. Liang, L. A., Berger, U., & Brand, C. (2019). Psychosocial factors associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress among single mothers with young children: A population-based study. Journal of affective disorders, 242, 255-264. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jad.2018.08.013
  39. Lindsey, L. L. (2020). Gender: Sociological Perspectives. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315102023
  40. Lopez, G. P. R., & San Juan, E. G. (2020). Socio-economic status and livelihood prospects of solo parents in Catanduanes, Philippines. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Socio-economic-status-and-livelihood-prospects-of-Lopez/2b73ace61f7e6432ffd2c613c09a10424b957719
  41. Lu, Y. C., Walker, R., Richard, P., & Younis, M. (2020). Inequalities in poverty and income between single mothers and fathers. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(1), 135. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/1/135
  42. Mastari, L., Spruyt, B., & Siongers, J. (2019). Benevolent and Hostile Sexism in Social Spheres: The Impact of Parents, School and Romance on Belgian Adolescents’ Sexist Attitudes. Frontiers in Sociology, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2019.00047
  43. Meeussen, L., & Van Laar, C. (2018). Feeling Pressure to Be a Perfect Mother Relates to Parental Burnout and Career Ambitions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02113
  44. Muir, C. (2021). STOP: The Sexualization of Women & Girls. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12648/7070
  45. Munoz Boudet, A. M., Buitrago, P., De La Briere, B. L., Newhouse, D., Rubiano Matulevich, E., Scott, K., & Suarez-Becerra, P. (2018). Gender Differences in Poverty and Household Composition through the Life-cycle: A Global Perspective. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-8360
  46. Nason-Clark, N. (2020). When Terror Strikes at Home: The Interface Between Religion and Domestic Violence. Family Rights and Religion, 245–252. https://doi.org/10.43
  47. Nzeyo, G. E. (2019). Christianity, misogyny, and women. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 16(3), 164-181. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/lwati/article/view/189910
  48. OXFAM. (2022). Survey: Filipinos still believe gender stereotypes on breadwinning, unpaid care work but positive changes seen | Oxfam Philippines. Oxfam.org. https://philippines.oxfam.org/latest/press-release/survey-filipinos-still-believe-gender-stereotypes-breadwinning-unpaid-care-work
  49. Pantaleon, C., & Arguelles, C. V. (2020). Unholy alliance? Ordinary religious Christian women’s responses to Rodrigo Duterte’s gendered populism. Review of Women’s Studies. https://www.academia.edu/43856891/Unholy_alliance_Ordinary_religious_Christian_womens_responses_to_Rodrigo_Dutertes_gendered_populism
  50. Pedrosa, C. N. (2020, August 22). The impact of covid on women and the poor especially in the Philippines. Philstar.com; Philstar.com. https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2020/08/23/2037198/impact-covid-women-and-poor-especially-philippines
  51. Prikhidko, A., & Swank, J. (2018). Motherhood Experiences and Expectations: A Qualitative Exploration of Mothers of Toddlers. The Family Journal. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1066480718795116
  52. Rached, M. A., Hankir, A., & Zaman, R. (2021). Patriarchal Upbringing in the 21st Century: The Impact Emotional Abuse Related to Parental Styles Has on the Genesis of Gender Inequality and the Development of Unresolved Trauma in Children. Psychiatria Danubina, 33(Suppl 11). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34862904/
  53. Ramos, E. S., & Tus, J. (2020). Beating the Odds: An Exploratory Study on Single Mothers' Lived Experiences in Child-Rearing Practices. Asian Journal of Current Research, 5(1), 58-70.
  54. Rubin, M., Paolini, S., Subašić, E., & Giacomini, A. (2019). A confirmatory study of the relations between workplace sexism, sense of belonging, mental health, and job satisfaction among women in male‐dominated industries. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 49(5), 267-282. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12577
  55. Rudden, M. G. (2022). Misogyny and Gender Role Straight-Jackets: A Psychoanalytic Perspective. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 42(7), 557-566. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351690.2022.2121146
  56. Savigny, H. (2020). Sexism and misogyny. The International Encyclopedia of Gender, Media, and Communication, 1-7. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119429128.iegmc092
  57. Scerri, J. (2020). The power and the passion: Representations of single motherhood in contemporary Australian literature. Global Media Journal: Australian Edition, 14(1). https://www.hca.westernsydney.edu.au/gmjau/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/GMJAU-The-power-and-the-passion_-Representations-of-single-motherhood-in-contemporary-Australian-literature.pdf
  58. Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., & Altenburger, L. E. (2019). Parental Gatekeeping. Handbook of Parenting, 167–198. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429433214-5
  59. Sexism at work. (2020, November 10). European Institute for Gender Equality; EIGE. https://eige.europa.eu/publications/sexism-at-work-handbook/part-1-understand/sexism-work 24/9781003075127-15
  60. Sicam, E. B., Umawid, M. D., Colot, J. D., Dagdag, J. D., & Handrianto, C. (2021). Phenomenology of Parenting while Schooling among Filipino College Student Mothers in the Province. KOLOKIUM Jurnal Pendidikan Luar Sekolah, 9(2), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.24036/kolokium-pls.v9i2.483
  61. Siegel, J. A., & Calogero, R. M. (2019). Conformity to feminine norms and self-objectification in self-identified feminist and non-feminist women. Body Image, 28, 115–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.01.005
  62. Smith, J. A., & Nizza, I. E. (2023). lAPA PsycNet. Apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-53744-000
  63. Stainton, A., Chisholm, K., Kaiser, N., Rosen, M., Upthegrove, R., Ruhrmann, S., & Wood, S. J. (2018). Resilience as a multimodal dynamic process. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 13(4), 725–732. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12726
  64. Suminar, J. R., Indrayanti, Siswadi, A. G. P., & Setianti, Y. (2018). Single Mother Role in the Success of their Children (Phenomenological Study of Single Women in Makassar City) | Emerald Insight. Emerald.com, 1, 229–234. https://doi.org/10.1108//S2516-2853201801
  65. Thielemans, G. & Mortelmans, D. (2019). Female Labour Force Participation After Divorce: How Employment Histories Matter. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 40, 180–193. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10834-018-9600-9
  66. Verniers, C., & Vala, J. (2018). Justifying gender discrimination in the workplace: The mediating role of motherhood myths. PloS one, 13(1), e0190657. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190657
  67. Whytock, E. (2021). Dissertation Proposal. Ellie’s Blog; Ellie’s Blog. https://elliewhytock.wordpress.com/

Tools


Copyright © 2024  KITE Digital Educational Solutions |  Exclusively distributed by CE-Logic